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Last Updated: December 2025

Research Citations

[1] Brennan, C. (2023, June 8). Eating disorder helpline takes down chatbot after it gave weight loss advice. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2023/06/08/1181131532/eating-disorder-helpline-takes-down-chatbot-after-it-gave-weight-loss-advice

[2] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Suicide data and statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/suicide/facts/data.html

[3] LLM Death Count. (n.d.). Tracking deaths attributed to large language models. https://www.llmdeathcount.com

[4] Posner, K., Brown, G. K., Stanley, B., Brent, D. A., Yershova, K. V., Oquendo, M. A., Currier, G. W., Melvin, G. A., Greenhill, L., Shen, S., & Mann, J. J. (2011). The Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale: Initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(12), 1266-1277. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3893686/

[5] Columbia Lighthouse Project. (n.d.). The Columbia Scale: C-SSRS evidence. https://cssrs.columbia.edu/the-columbia-scale-c-ssrs/evidence/

[6] Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606-613. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1495268/

[7] Levis, B., Benedetti, A., & Thombs, B. D. (2019). Accuracy of Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for screening to detect major depression: Individual participant data meta-analysis. BMJ, 365, l1476. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7525967/

[8] Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092-1097. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16717171/

[9] Tiirikainen, K., Haravuori, H., Ranta, K., Kaltiala-Heino, R., & Marttunen, M. (2024). Psychometric properties of the GAD-7 in Finnish adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 367, 127-134. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032724004634

[10] Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., ... Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://www.prisma-statement.org/

[11] RAND Corporation. (n.d.). Delphi method. https://www.rand.org/topics/delphi-method.html

[12] Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. E., Clarke, D. E., Kraemer, H. C., Kuramoto, S. J., Kuhl, E. A., & Kupfer, D. J. (2013). DSM-5 field trials in the United States and Canada, Part II: Test-retest reliability of selected categorical diagnoses. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(1), 59-70. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2860522/

[13] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General. (2012). Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity: A Supplement to Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44249/

[14] Ribeiro, J. D., Franklin, J. C., Fox, K. R., Bentley, K. H., Kleiman, E. M., Chang, B. P., & Nock, M. K. (2016). Self-injurious thoughts and behaviors as risk factors for future suicide ideation, attempts, and death: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 46(2), 225-236. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5777328/

[15] Torous, J., & Nebeker, C. (2025). Navigating ethics, privacy, and regulation in digital mental health. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 27(1), e80739. https://mental.jmir.org/2025/1/e80739

[16] RAND Corporation. (2025, August). AI chatbots inconsistent in answering questions about suicide. https://www.rand.org/news/press/2025/08/ai-chatbots-inconsistent-in-answering-questions-about.html

[17] Brown University. (2025, October 21). AI systems show racial bias in mental health assessments. https://www.brown.edu/news/2025-10-21/ai-mental-health-ethics

[18] Stanford Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence. (n.d.). Exploring the dangers of AI in mental health care. https://hai.stanford.edu/news/exploring-the-dangers-of-ai-in-mental-health-care

[19] Wells, S. (2025). New study warns of risks in AI mental health tools. Stanford Report. https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2025/06/ai-mental-health-care-tools-dangers-risks

[20] Ji, S., Li, X., Huang, Z., & Cambria, E. (2025). Suicidal ideation and mental disorder detection with attentive relation networks. Scientific Reports, 15, 17242. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-17242-4

[21] Richter, F. (2022, September 13). The U.S. has a jails suicide crisis on its hands. Statista. https://www.statista.com/chart/28290/suicide-rates-in-us-jails-prisons-and-general-public/

[22] Tai, A., Pincham, H., Basu, A., & Large, M. (2025). Meta-analysis of risk factors for suicide after psychiatric discharge and meta-regression of the duration of follow-up. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12280246/

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